Stack

Systems in Rust

Announcements

Welcome to Systems in Rust
Action Items:
- Midterms verbal update.
- Keep at ix
- This unlocks the last and greatest of the cryptographic homeworks so we can get to graph theory.

Ownership

Ownership is a set of rules that govern how a Rust program manages memory.

Some languages (Python) have garbage collection that regularly looks for no-longer-used memory as the program runs
Other languages (C) the programmer must explicitly allocate and free the memory

A “Move”

A String data structure is moved when passed to a function,
- This invalidates the original variable.

src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("hello");
    // s1's ownership is moved to the 'take' function's 's' parameter.
    take_ownership(s1);

    // This line would error
    // println!("s1 is: {}", s1);
}

fn take_ownership(s: String) {
    println!("Received: {}", s);
    // 's' "goes out of scope".
}

Commentary

The String type is not a value, but a data structure.
- It requires some amount of memory.
When take_ownership(s1) is called, the main ceases to be the “owner” of s1
- s1 is “moved” to take_ownership

Commentary

After the move, s1 is considered invalid by the compiler.
- If you try to use it (as shown in the commented-out line), the Rust compiler blocks.
When take_ownership finishes, the memory owned by s is automatically cleaned up (dropped).
- The “some amount of memory” is now available for used by other programs, functions, or variables.
- Otherwise we would gradually run out of memory.

A “Copy”

x, an i32, is a value, not a data structure.
- There are two copies of the value.

src/main.rs

// src/main.rs (Snippet 2)
fn main() {
    let x = 5;
    // x's value is copied. The original x remains valid.
    make_copy(x);

    println!("x is still: {}", x);
}

fn make_copy(i: i32) {
    println!("Received: {}", i);
    // 'i' goes out of scope.
}

Commentary

When make_copy(x) is called, a bit-for-bit copy of the value $5$ is created and assigned to the parameter i.
- We can do this because to copy x requires a (1) known and (2) finite number of bits.
The original variable x remains valid and can be used after the function call.
- Each function has its own copy of the data.
- The data is small and cheap to duplicate.

A “Borrow” (References)

Access data w/o ownership by borrowing a reference.

src/main.rs

// src/main.rs (Snippet 3)
fn main() {
    let s = String::from("hello world");
    // Pass a reference (&s), which is borrowing.
    let len = calculate_length(&s);

    // 's' is still valid because ownership was not moved.
    println!("'{}' has length {}", s, len);
}

fn calculate_length(s: &String) -> usize {
    s.len()
    // 's' (the reference) goes out of scope, but the String
    // it points to is NOT dropped.
}

Commentary

The &String type represents a reference to a String. This is an act of borrowing.
- The data structure is not copied, rather it’s location is shared.
The function calculate_length can read the data via the reference s but does not take ownership.
- It can look up what is in the data structure, but not manipulate it.

The Rust “Thing”

Because ownership is retained by the s variable in main, it remains valid and can be used after the function call
- Borrowing allows temporary access without transferring ownership.
This separates Rust from all other major languages.
- It is why Rust is winning.

The Stack

Citation

The stack is easy to understand once you understand it.
I’m not great at explaining it.
Memory Stack Organization in Computer Architecture

The Memory Stack

The Memory Stack is a LIFO (Last-In, First-Out) storage device.
- It organizes a portion of the computer’s system memory.
It is named for the Stack (abstract data type)

A Leaky Abstraction

A stack is reality of hardware design.
Knowing about the stack is ~required to write Rust.
- Nominally the stack is “abstracted” from programmers - it exists but we don’t think of it.
- Rust “violates” that abstraction by exposing it through the borrow model.
- We term this a “leaky abstraction”.
  - We can ignore it a little bit, but not all the way.

Hardware Implementation

Physical CPUs implements a stack using memory address.
- This process utilizes several key processor registers:
  - Stack Pointer (SP): Points at the top of the stack.
  - Data Registers (DR): Store values within the compute core (e.g. not in memory).
- A register is a physical collection of semiconductors that are the hardware equivalent of a register.

Stack Growth & Rust’s Copy Trait

Stack growth: The SP usually starts high (e.g., $3000$) and grows towards decreasing addresses (e.g., $2000$).
- The first item is stored at the highest initial address.
- Historical design decision.
Rust’s Copy allows fixed-size data stored on the stack.
- Values like i32 are copied when assigned/passed..
```
let x = 5;
let y = x; // A simple copy is made on the stack.
```

Rust PUSH Diagram

Values around 0x3000 are hex memory locations.
The stack pointer SP starts at 0x3004 and ends at 0x299C

PUSH Operation

PUSH inserts a new data item at top of stack.
- “Same” as the abstract data type.
- Step 1: Decrement SP: $SP \leftarrow SP-1$
  - SP “stack pointer” holds the current “top” of the stack.
  - It is updated by the finite size of the pushed value.
- Step 2: Write to Memory: $M[SP] \leftarrow DR$
  - The value in some “data register” is written to the memory location in the the SP.

POP Operation

The POP operation retrieves (and effectively deletes) a data item from the top of the stack.
- Step 1: Read from Memory $\rightarrow$ $DR \leftarrow M[SP]$ (The top data item is read into the Data Register).
- Step 2: Increment SP $\rightarrow$ $SP \leftarrow SP+1$ (The SP moves away, “deleting” the item).

When does this happen?

We don’t really encode POP in Rust

Rather it happens when a variable exits a name space, for example:

(This is cringe to be minimal)

let x = 5;
{
  let y = x; // A simple copy is made on the stack.  
} // y POP
let z = 7;

Rust POP Diagram

Unrelated Track

Pay Attention

Do not click this while streaming.

Rust Ownership

Rust’s ownership system manages heap-allocated data (like String), which are too large for simple stack copying.
- These types use Move semantics to ensure memory safety.
  - Ownership is transferred to prevent multiple variables from trying to free the same memory.
```
let s = String::from("POPPY");
let t = s;
```

Thinking about ownership

We can imagine this operation as follows:
- The value of s is not the String data structure, but rather a description of where to find the data structure.
- When we take t = s:
  - Nothing changes about the stack.
  - The value on the stack may now be referred to as t
  - Attempting to refer to s will trigger a compiler error.
  - This makes sense (trust me).

Rust Ownership Diagram

But wait!

Uh where does "POPPY" live.
- Los Angeles, where else?
- Wait no I get it.
On the heap.
- On no, another abstract data type.
- In this case though, no really.
- Basically it just means “not to the stack.

The Heap

Citation

Look, its a morass of memory.
It’s the OS’s problem.
- And therefore our problem next term.
It’s mass chaos out there.
- As much a hash table as a heap, really.
Heap Memory Explained

Heap Memory Fundamentals

A region for dynamic memory allocation.
- Used for flexible allocation/deallocation at runtime.
  - Arbitrary sizes!
Vs. the Stack:
- Stack: Fixed size, “LIFO” order, language (rustc) managed, suitable for small, short-lived data.
- Heap: Any size, Any access pattern, manually managed with ownership.

Abstraction

We can think of variables in programs as keys using key-value storage, like a hash table or map or dictionary.
We can think of numerical memory addresses in the same way, but OS managed.
So - imagine the OS has a hash table of vectors
- We use “vector” as “array of arbitrary length
You can store any data structure in some combination of vectors.

Common Uses

Allocating memory for data structures, arrays, or file-like objects.
Mandatory (mostly) when size is unknown or may change during execution
- Files
- Linked lists
- Vectors
- Strings

The Danger: Memory Leaks

Memory Leak Definition: Occurs when a program allocates heap memory but fails to deallocate it after use.
- The memory remains reserved, reducing available memory.
Not possible in Rust.
- HUGE Rust W
- C++ is, as the kids say, Ohio
In older languages, you could ask for a lot of heap then loss the ability to find what you put there.

Binary Heaps (Data Structure)

Binary Heap: A specialized tree-based data structure.
- Satisfies the “heap property”
  - (parent $\ge$ children for max-heap).
- The tree is balanced (contiguous in memory)
- Efficent insertion/deletion (log $n$) and root access ($O(1)$).
No relation to the langauge/OS heap.
- Will definitely not be a future homework assignment ¹

In Hardware

The MMU
A hardware “memory management unit”
- Actually physical exists.
- Often on the same physical chip as the CPU.
- Manages all memory operations related to the CPU.
- The CPU must consult the MMU for every memory access.

A Hardware Data Structure

The MMU converts a Virtual Address (the numerical address used by the OS) into a Physical Address (the physical electrons on chip).
Numbers aren’t real², but transistors are.
Big deal in computer architecture.

Distribution of Labor

The MMU manages circuitry
The OS manages numerical (0x3000) memory addresses
The programmer/language manages symbolic (x) variable names.
- Each of these is a leaky abstraction.

Vocab

This would be on a written, in-class assessment if we used those.
You are still responsible for this material.
Assessed at low probability in job interviews in these languages.
- Like Oracle or Micron or something.

Vocab

Paging: The Mechanism
- Virtual address space divided in fixed-size chunks called pages (~4KB).
- The physical memory divided into same-sized chunks called frames.

Vocab

Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)
- The MMU uses the TLB, a small, fast cache, to store recent translations.
  - A cache is like an array of registers.
  - Fast as heck.

The TLB

The translation lookaside buffer is my “most encountered term when I didn’t think it would matter”.

Oh yeah, the part of hardware that makes numerical (OS) to hardware (physical location) resolution fast.

Vocab

Page Table
- If a translation is not in the TLB (a “TLB miss”), the MMU must consult the Page Table.
  - Big data structure, slow but complete.
- Managed by the OS.

`struct`

Citation

We’ll just use the example struct from Rustbook.
5.2 Example Program Using Structs

Motivation

Write a program that calculates the area of a rectangle.
Start by using single variables
Refactor the program until we’re using structs instead.

Start

src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let width1 = 30;
    let height1 = 50;

    println!(
        "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
        area(width1, height1)
    );
}

fn area(width: u32, height: u32) -> u32 {
    width * height
}

Check

Now, run this program using cargo run:

$ cargo run
   Compiling rect v0.1.0 (/home/user/tmp/rect)
    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s
     Running `target/debug/rect`
The area of the rectangle is 1500 square pixels.

This code succeeds in figuring out the area of the rectangle by calling the area function with each dimension, but we can do more to make this code clear and readable.

Problem

This is bad:

fn area(width: u32, height: u32) -> u32 {

area function is supposed to calculate the area of one rectangle, but
- The function we wrote has two parameters
- It’s not clear anywhere in our program that the parameters are related.
We term this an anti-pattern

Anti-patterns

An anti-pattern is a solution to a class of problem which may be commonly used but is likely to be ineffective or counterproductive.

Common examples
- God object (all code in 1 class
- Magic number (use constants)

Patterns

struct is a design pattern, the negation of an anti-pattern.
- Generally most like the “Module” pattern in practice.
It would be more readable and more manageable to group width and height together.

The humble `tuple`

src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let rect1 = (30, 50);

    println!(
        "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
        area(rect1)
    );
}

fn area(dimensions: (u32, u32)) -> u32 {
    dimensions.0 * dimensions.1
}

Comments

This program is better.
- Tuples add a bit of structure
This program is worse.
- Tuples don’t name their elements,
  - We use non-obvious indices.
  - That is, magic numbers (anti-pattern).

The immortal `struct`

Structs to add meaning by labeling the data.
- The CS151 “record” abstraction
We exchange our tuple for a
1. struct with a
2. Structure name for the whole as well as
3. Field names for the parts

The Pattern

src/main.rs

struct Rectangle {
    width: u32,
    height: u32,
}

fn main() {
    let rect1 = Rectangle {
        width: 30,
        height: 50,
    };

    println!(
        "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
        area(&rect1)
    );
}

fn area(rectangle: &Rectangle) -> u32 {
    rectangle.width * rectangle.height
}

Derived Traits

Surely the struct is better in every way.

src/main.rs

struct Rectangle {
    width: u32,
    height: u32,
}

fn main() {
    let rect1 = Rectangle {
        width: 30,
        height: 50,
    };

    println!("rect1 is {rect1}");
}

Let’s check:

$ cargo run
   Compiling rect v0.1.0 (/home/user/tmp/rect)
error[E0277]: `Rectangle` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display`
  --> src/main.rs:12:24
   |
12 |     println!("rect1 is {rect1}");
   |                        ^^^^^^^ `Rectangle` cannot be formatted with the default formatter
   |
   = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Rectangle`
   = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead
   = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` which comes from the expansion of the macro `println` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info)

For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`.
error: could not compile `rect` (bin "rect") due to 1 previous error

An Aside

I love Rust but that is a lot of text.

$ cargo run 2>&1 | wc
     13     105     776

2>&1 takes errors (‘2’, for short), moves them (>) to output (1 for short).
- It adds (>&) rather than overwrites.
| takes the output of a command (cargo run 2>&1) and makes it the input of the next command.
wc is wordcount - it counts lines, words, characters.

Length

That is 5-6 tweets of text

$ echo $((776 / 140))
5

$(()) is “arithmetic expansion”
Rust Book only lays claim to this solitary line of output.

error[E0277]: `Rectangle` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display`

Sure buddy. Okay bud.

Shorter

In Rust book there’s a lengthy philosophical discussion here.
Anyways, they decided the solution is as follows.
- Use either dbg!() or `println!(“{:?}”), and
- Prefix structures with #[derive(Debug)]

Fixed

src/main.rs

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Rectangle {
    width: u32,
    height: u32,
}

fn main() {
    dbg!(Rectangle {
        width: 30,
        height: 50,
    });
}

5 more tweets

$ cargo run
   Compiling rect v0.1.0 (/home/user/tmp/rect)
warning: fields `width` and `height` are never read
 --> src/main.rs:3:5
  |
2 | struct Rectangle {
  |        --------- fields in this struct
3 |     width: u32,
  |     ^^^^^
4 |     height: u32,
  |     ^^^^^^
  |
  = note: `Rectangle` has a derived impl for the trait `Debug`, but this is intentionally ignored during dead code analysis
  = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default

warning: `rect` (bin "rect") generated 1 warning
    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.37s
     Running `target/debug/rect`
[src/main.rs:8:5] Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, } = Rectangle {
    width: 30,
    height: 50,
}

Ownership redux

By the way, this doesn’t work.

src/main.rs

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Rectangle {
    width: u32,
    height: u32,
}

fn main() {
    let r = Rectangle {
        width: 30,
        height: 50,
    };
    dbg!(r);
    dbg!(r);
}

dbg! yoinks ownership (cringe).

This works

Borrow, don’t own.

src/main.rs

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Rectangle {
    width: u32,
    height: u32,
}

fn main() {
    let r = Rectangle {
        width: 30,
        height: 50,
    };
    dbg!(&r); // Borrow!
    dbg!(r);  // Yoink'd
}

Footnotes

Unless?↩︎
Well.↩︎

--- title: "Stack" --- # Announcements - **Welcome** to Systems in Rust - **Action Items**: - Midterms verbal update. - Keep at `ix` - This unlocks the last and greatest of the cryptographic homeworks so we can get to graph theory. ## Today - [ ] Ownership - [ ] The Stack - [ ] The Heap - [ ] `struct` - [ ] Anti-patterns and Design Patterns. ## Ownership > *Ownership* is a set of rules that govern how a Rust program manages memory. - Some languages (Python) have garbage collection that regularly looks for no-longer-used memory as the program runs - Other languages (C) the programmer must explicitly allocate and free the memory ## A "Move" - A **String** *data structure* is **moved** when passed to a function, - This invalidates the original variable. ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} fn main() { let s1 = String::from("hello"); // s1's ownership is moved to the 'take' function's 's' parameter. take_ownership(s1); // This line would error // println!("s1 is: {}", s1); } fn take_ownership(s: String) { println!("Received: {}", s); // 's' "goes out of scope". } ``` ## Commentary * The `String` type is not a value, but a data structure. - It requires some amount of memory. * When `take_ownership(s1)` is called, the `main` ceases to be the "owner" of `s1` - `s1` is "moved" to `take_ownership` ## Commentary * After the move, `s1` is considered **invalid** by the compiler. - If you try to use it (as shown in the commented-out line), the Rust compiler blocks. * When `take_ownership` finishes, the memory owned by `s` is automatically cleaned up (dropped). - The "some amount of memory" is now available for used by other programs, functions, or variables. - Otherwise we would gradually run out of memory. --- ## A "Copy" - `x`, an `i32`, is a value, not a data structure. - There are two **copies** of the value. ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} // src/main.rs (Snippet 2) fn main() { let x = 5; // x's value is copied. The original x remains valid. make_copy(x); println!("x is still: {}", x); } fn make_copy(i: i32) { println!("Received: {}", i); // 'i' goes out of scope. } ``` ## Commentary * When `make_copy(x)` is called, a bit-for-bit **copy** of the value $5$ is created and assigned to the parameter `i`. - We can do this because to copy `x` requires a (1) known and (2) finite number of bits. * The original variable `x` remains **valid** and can be used after the function call. - Each function has its own copy of the data. - The data is small and cheap to duplicate. --- ## A "Borrow" (References) - Access data w/o **ownership** by **borrowing** a **reference**. ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} // src/main.rs (Snippet 3) fn main() { let s = String::from("hello world"); // Pass a reference (&s), which is borrowing. let len = calculate_length(&s); // 's' is still valid because ownership was not moved. println!("'{}' has length {}", s, len); } fn calculate_length(s: &String) -> usize { s.len() // 's' (the reference) goes out of scope, but the String // it points to is NOT dropped. } ``` ## Commentary * The `&String` type represents a **reference** to a `String`. This is an act of **borrowing**. - The data structure is not copied, rather it's location is shared. * The function `calculate_length` can read the data via the reference `s` but **does not take ownership**. - It can look up what is in the data structure, but not manipulate it. ## The Rust "Thing" * Because ownership is retained by the `s` variable in `main`, it remains **valid** and can be used after the function call - **Borrowing** allows temporary access without transferring ownership. * This separates Rust from all other major languages. - It is why Rust is winning. # The Stack ## Citation - The stack is easy to understand once you understand it. - I'm not great at explaining it. - [Memory Stack Organization in Computer Architecture](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-organization-architecture/memory-stack-organization-in-computer-architecture/) ## The Memory Stack * The **Memory Stack** is a **LIFO** (Last-In, First-Out) storage device. * It organizes a portion of the computer's system memory. * It is named for the [Stack (abstract data type)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_(abstract_data_type)) --- ## A Leaky Abstraction * A stack is reality of *hardware design*. * Knowing about the stack is ~required to write Rust. * Nominally the stack is "abstracted" from programmers - it exists but we don't think of it. * Rust "violates" that abstraction by exposing it through the borrow model. * We term this a "leaky abstraction". * We can ignore it a little bit, but not all the way. ## Hardware Implementation * Physical CPUs implements a stack using memory address. * This process utilizes several key processor *registers*: * **Stack Pointer (SP):** Points at the top of the stack. * **Data Registers (DR):** Store values within the compute core (e.g. not in memory). * A register is a physical collection of semiconductors that are the hardware equivalent of a register. --- ## Stack Growth & Rust's Copy Trait * Stack growth: The SP usually starts high (e.g., $3000$) and **grows towards decreasing addresses** (e.g., $2000$). * The first item is stored at the highest initial address. * Historical design decision. * Rust's **Copy** allows fixed-size data stored on the stack. * Values like `i32` are copied when assigned/passed.. ```rs let x = 5; let y = x; // A simple copy is made on the stack. ``` ## Rust PUSH Diagram - Values around `0x3000` are hex memory locations. - The stack pointer SP starts at `0x3004` and ends at `0x299C` ```{dot} digraph g { rankdir=LR; bgcolor="#191919"; node [ fontcolor = "#ffffff", color = "#ffffff", shape = "record", fontname="Courier" ] edge [ color = "#ffffff", fontcolor = "#ffffff", fontname="Courier" ] "stack0" [ label = "{3000|<f0>}" ]; "stack1" [ label = "{299C|<f1>} | {3000 | <f0> 5} " ]; "stack2" [ label = "{2998|<f2>} | {299C|<f1> 5} | {3000 | <f0> 5}" ]; stack0 -> stack1 [label = "let x = 5;"] stack1 -> stack2 [label = "let y = x;"] } ``` ## PUSH Operation * **PUSH** inserts a new data item at top of stack. * "Same" as the abstract data type. * **Step 1: Decrement SP**: $SP \leftarrow SP-1$ * SP "stack pointer" holds the current "top" of the stack. * It is updated by the finite size of the pushed value. * **Step 2: Write to Memory**: $M[SP] \leftarrow DR$ * The value in some "data register" is written to the memory location in the the SP. --- ## POP Operation * The **POP** operation retrieves (and effectively deletes) a data item from the top of the stack. * **Step 1: Read from Memory** $\rightarrow$ $DR \leftarrow M[SP]$ (The top data item is read into the Data Register). * **Step 2: Increment SP** $\rightarrow$ $SP \leftarrow SP+1$ (The SP moves away, "deleting" the item). --- ## When does this happen? - We don't really encode POP in Rust - Rather it happens when a variable exits a name space, for example: - (This is cringe to be minimal) ```rs let x = 5; { let y = x; // A simple copy is made on the stack. } // y POP let z = 7; ``` ## Rust POP Diagram ```{dot} digraph g { rankdir=LR; bgcolor="#191919"; node [ fontcolor = "#ffffff", color = "#ffffff", shape = "record", fontname="Courier" ] edge [ color = "#ffffff", fontcolor = "#ffffff", fontname="Courier" ] "stack1" [ label = "{3000 | <f0> 5}| {299C|<f1>}" ]; "stack2" [ label = "{2998|<f2>} | {299C|<f1> 5} | {3000 | <f0> 5}" ]; "stack3" [ label = "{299C|<f1>} | {3000 | <f0> 5}" ]; "stack4" [ label = "{2998|<f2>} | {299C|<f1> 7} | {3000 | <f0> 5}" ]; stack1 -> stack2 [label = "let y = x;"] stack2 -> stack3 [label = "} // y POP"] stack3 -> stack4 [label = "let z = 7;"] } ``` ## Unrelated Track ::: {.callout-note } ## Pay Attention Do not click this while streaming. ::: <iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/E4vUxVwb_G8?si=5QP0_2b7zP0kZj8G" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" allowfullscreen></iframe> ## Rust Ownership * Rust's ownership system manages heap-allocated data (like `String`), which are too large for simple stack copying. * These types use **Move** semantics to ensure memory safety. * Ownership is transferred to prevent multiple variables from trying to free the same memory. ```rs let s = String::from("POPPY"); let t = s; ``` ## Thinking about ownership - We can imagine this operation as follows: - The value of `s` is not the String data structure, but rather a description of where to find the data structure. - When we take `t = s`: - **Nothing** changes about the stack. - The value on the stack may now be referred to as `t` - Attempting to refer to `s` will trigger a compiler error. - This makes sense (trust me). ## Rust Ownership Diagram ```{dot} digraph g { rankdir=LR; bgcolor="#191919"; node [ fontcolor = "#ffffff", color = "#ffffff", shape = "record", fontname="Courier" ] edge [ color = "#ffffff", fontcolor = "#ffffff", fontname="Courier" ] "stack0" [ label = "{3000|<f0>}" ]; "stack1" [ label = "{299C|<f1>} | {3000 | <f0> s}" ]; "stack2" [ label = "{299C|<f1>} | {3000 | <f0> t}" ]; "heap0" [ label = "{??00 | <f0> `P`} | {??04 | <f0> `O`} | {??08 | <f0> `P`} | {??0A | <f0> `P`} | {??10 | <f0> `Y`}" ]; stack0 -> stack1 [label = "let s = "] stack1 -> stack2 [label = "let t = s;"] stack1:f0 -> heap0 [label = "String::from()"] stack2:f0 -> heap0 } ``` ## But wait! - Uh where does `"POPPY"` live. - Los Angeles, where else? - Wait no I get it. - On the heap. - On no, another abstract data type. - In this case though, no really. - Basically it just means "not to the stack. # The Heap ## Citation - Look, its a morass of memory. - It's the OS's problem. - And therefore our problem next term. - It's mass chaos out there. - As much a hash table as a heap, really. - [Heap Memory Explained](https://www.lenovo.com/us/en/glossary/heap/) ## Heap Memory Fundamentals * A region for **dynamic memory allocation**. * Used for flexible allocation/deallocation at **runtime**. * Arbitrary sizes! * Vs. the Stack: * **Stack:** Fixed size, "LIFO" order, language (`rustc`) managed, suitable for small, short-lived data. * **Heap:** Any size, Any access pattern, **manually** managed with ownership. ## Abstraction - We can think of variables in programs as keys using key-value storage, like a hash table or map or dictionary. - We can think of numerical memory addresses *in the same way*, but OS managed. - So - imagine the OS has a hash table of vectors - We use "vector" as "array of arbitrary length - You can store any data structure in some combination of vectors. --- ## Common Uses * Allocating memory for data structures, arrays, or file-like objects. * Mandatory (mostly) when size is **unknown** or may **change** during execution - Files - Linked lists - Vectors - Strings --- ## The Danger: Memory Leaks * **Memory Leak Definition:** Occurs when a program allocates heap memory but **fails to deallocate it** after use. * The memory remains reserved, reducing **available memory**. * Not possible in Rust. * **HUGE** Rust W * C++ is, as the kids say, Ohio * In older languages, you could ask for a lot of heap then loss the ability to find what you put there. --- ## Binary Heaps (Data Structure) * **Binary Heap:** A specialized tree-based data structure. * Satisfies the "heap property" * (parent $\ge$ children for max-heap). * The tree is **balanced** (contiguous in memory) * Efficent insertion/deletion (log $n$) and root access ($O(1)$). * No relation to the langauge/OS heap. * Will definitely not be a future homework assignment [^1] [^1]: Unless? ## In Hardware * The MMU * A hardware "memory management unit" * Actually physical exists. * Often on the same physical chip as the CPU. * Manages all memory operations related to the **CPU**. * The CPU must consult the MMU for every memory access. ## A Hardware Data Structure * The MMU converts a **Virtual Address** (the numerical address used by the OS) into a **Physical Address** (the physical electrons on chip). * Numbers aren't real[^2], but transistors are. * Big deal in computer architecture. [^2]: Well. ## Distribution of Labor * The MMU manages circuitry * The OS manages numerical (`0x3000`) memory addresses * The programmer/language manages symbolic (`x`) variable names. * Each of these is a *leaky abstraction*. ## Vocab - This would be on a written, in-class assessment if we used those. - You are still responsible for this material. - Assessed at low probability in job interviews in these languages. - Like Oracle or Micron or something. ## Vocab * **Paging: The Mechanism** * **Virtual address space** divided in fixed-size chunks called **pages** (~4KB). * The **physical memory** divided into same-sized chunks called **frames**. ## Vocab * **Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)** * The MMU uses the TLB, a small, fast **cache**, to store **recent** translations. * A cache is like an array of registers. * Fast as heck. ## The TLB - The translation lookaside buffer is my "most encountered term when I didn't think it would matter". > Oh yeah, the part of hardware that makes numerical (OS) to hardware (physical location) resolution fast. ## Vocab * **Page Table** * If a translation is not in the TLB (a "TLB miss"), the MMU must consult the **Page Table**. * Big data structure, slow but complete. * Managed by the OS. ## Today - [x] Ownership - [x] The Stack - [x] The Heap - [ ] `struct` - [ ] Anti-patterns and Design Patterns. # `struct` ## Citation - We'll just use the example struct from Rustbook. - [5.2 Example Program Using Structs](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch05-02-example-structs.html) ## Motivation - Write a program that calculates the area of a rectangle. - Start by using single variables - Refactor the program until we’re using structs instead. ## Start ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} fn main() { let width1 = 30; let height1 = 50; println!( "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.", area(width1, height1) ); } fn area(width: u32, height: u32) -> u32 { width * height } ``` ## Check Now, run this program using `cargo run`: ```sh $ cargo run Compiling rect v0.1.0 (/home/user/tmp/rect) Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s Running `target/debug/rect` The area of the rectangle is 1500 square pixels. ``` This code succeeds in figuring out the area of the rectangle by calling the `area` function with each dimension, but we can do more to make this code clear and readable. ## Problem - This is bad: ```rust,ignore fn area(width: u32, height: u32) -> u32 { ``` - `area` function is supposed to calculate the area of one rectangle, but - The function we wrote has two parameters - It’s not clear anywhere in our program that the parameters are related. - We term this an *anti-pattern* ## Anti-patterns > [An anti-pattern is a solution to a class of problem which may be commonly used but is likely to be ineffective or counterproductive.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-pattern) - Common examples - God object (all code in 1 class - Magic number (use constants) ## Patterns - `struct` is a *design pattern*, the negation of an anti-pattern. - Generally most like the ["Module" pattern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module_pattern) in practice. - It would be more readable and more manageable to group width and height together. ## The humble `tuple` ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} fn main() { let rect1 = (30, 50); println!( "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.", area(rect1) ); } fn area(dimensions: (u32, u32)) -> u32 { dimensions.0 * dimensions.1 } ``` ## Comments - This program is better. - Tuples add a bit of structure - This program is worse. - Tuples don’t name their elements, - We use non-obvious indices. - That is, magic numbers (anti-pattern). ## The immortal `struct` - Structs to add meaning by labeling the data. - The CS151 "record" abstraction - We exchange our tuple for a 1. `struct` with a 2. Structure name for the whole as well as 3. Field names for the parts ## The Pattern ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} struct Rectangle { width: u32, height: u32, } fn main() { let rect1 = Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, }; println!( "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.", area(&rect1) ); } fn area(rectangle: &Rectangle) -> u32 { rectangle.width * rectangle.height } ``` ## Derived Traits - Surely the `struct` is better in every way. ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} struct Rectangle { width: u32, height: u32, } fn main() { let rect1 = Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, }; println!("rect1 is {rect1}"); } ``` ## Let's check: ```sh $ cargo run Compiling rect v0.1.0 (/home/user/tmp/rect) error[E0277]: `Rectangle` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` --> src/main.rs:12:24 | 12 | println!("rect1 is {rect1}"); | ^^^^^^^ `Rectangle` cannot be formatted with the default formatter | = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Rectangle` = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` which comes from the expansion of the macro `println` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. error: could not compile `rect` (bin "rect") due to 1 previous error ``` ## An Aside - I love Rust but that is *a lot* of text. ```sh $ cargo run 2>&1 | wc 13 105 776 ``` - `2>&1` takes *errors* ('2', for short), moves them (`>`) to *output* (`1` for short). - It adds (`>&`) rather than overwrites. - `|` takes the output of a command (`cargo run 2>&1`) and makes it the input of the next command. - `wc` is wordcount - it counts lines, words, characters. ## Length - *That is 5-6 tweets of text* ```sh $ echo $((776 / 140)) 5 ``` - `$(())` is "arithmetic expansion" - Rust Book only lays claim to this solitary line of output. ```sh error[E0277]: `Rectangle` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` ``` - Sure buddy. Okay bud. ## Shorter - In Rust book there's a lengthy philosophical discussion here. - Anyways, they decided the solution is as follows. - Use either `dbg!()` or `println!("{:?}"), and - Prefix structures with `#[derive(Debug)]` ## Fixed ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} #[derive(Debug)] struct Rectangle { width: u32, height: u32, } fn main() { dbg!(Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, }); } ``` ## 5 more tweets ```sh $ cargo run Compiling rect v0.1.0 (/home/user/tmp/rect) warning: fields `width` and `height` are never read --> src/main.rs:3:5 | 2 | struct Rectangle { | --------- fields in this struct 3 | width: u32, | ^^^^^ 4 | height: u32, | ^^^^^^ | = note: `Rectangle` has a derived impl for the trait `Debug`, but this is intentionally ignored during dead code analysis = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default warning: `rect` (bin "rect") generated 1 warning Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.37s Running `target/debug/rect` [src/main.rs:8:5] Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, } = Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, } ``` ## Ownership redux - By the way, this doesn't work. ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} #[derive(Debug)] struct Rectangle { width: u32, height: u32, } fn main() { let r = Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, }; dbg!(r); dbg!(r); } ``` - `dbg!` yoinks ownership (cringe). ## This works - Borrow, don't own. ```{.rs filename="src/main.rs"} #[derive(Debug)] struct Rectangle { width: u32, height: u32, } fn main() { let r = Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, }; dbg!(&r); // Borrow! dbg!(r); // Yoink'd } ``` ## Today - [x] Ownership - [x] The Stack - [x] The Heap - [x] `struct` - [x] Anti-patterns and Design Patterns

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Ownership

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A “Copy”

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The Rust “Thing”

The Stack

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The Memory Stack

A Leaky Abstraction

Hardware Implementation

Stack Growth & Rust’s Copy Trait

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PUSH Operation

POP Operation

When does this happen?

Rust POP Diagram

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The Heap

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struct

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